EDUCATIONAL.  MONOGRAPHS 


I'll,  f  2 


PUBLISHED  BT  THE 


New  York  College  for  the  Training  of  Teachers 


NICHOLAS  MURRAY  BUTLER,  EDITOR 


Vol.  III.  No.  3.  j  j  Whole  No.  15. 

Manual  Training 

IN 

FRANCK 


BY 

A.  SALICIS 

Late  Inspector  General  of  Manual  Training 


Suggestions  for  the 

Teaching  of  Color 

BY 

HANNAH  JOHNSON  CARTER 

Professor  of  Form  Study  and  Drawing,  New  York  College  for  the  Training  of  Teachers 


MAY,  1890 


New  York  :  9  University  Place 
London:  Thomas  Laurie,  28  Paternoster  Row 

Issued  Bi-Monthly  [$1.00  Pee  Annum 


LIBRARY  U.  OF  I.  UHSAHj 


PREFATORY  NOTE. 


The  manuscript  for  the  paper  which  follows  on  Manual 
Training  in  France,  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  editor 
by  Gustave  Adolphe  Salicis  but  a  few  weeks  before  his 
death  in  December  last.  A  sketch  of  M.  Salicis’  life  and 
educational  activity  was  published  by  the  New  York 
College  for  the  Training  of  Teachers  as  Leaflet  No.  51. 

The  translation  has  been  carefully  made  by  Benjamin 
D.  Woodward,  Instructor  in  the  Romance  Languages  in 
Columbia  College. 


Copyright,  1889, 

New  Yoke  College  foe  the  Tkaining  of  Teachers. 


Entered  at  Stationers’  Hall. 


c 


I 


Manual  Training  in  France. 


Nature  wishes  that  those  who  work  should  first  be  esteemed  and  rewarded  by  the 
measure  of  their  salary. — Confucius. 

I  have  always  noticed  that  among  workmen,  good  apprentices  make  good  citizens. 

— B.  Franklin, 

( Codicil  to  his  testament.) 

We  have  been  created  to  act  and  to  produce. — Channing. 

The  aim  of  education  should  be  to  prepare  us  for  complete  life ;  therefore  education 
should  furnish  the  individual  with  the  means  of  providing  for  his  existence. 

— Herbert  Spencer. 

There  is  nothing  at  all  new  in  the  idea  of  completing 
man  and  doubling  his  value  by  teaching  him  at  an  early 
age  to  make  use  of  his  hands.  We  have  reason  to  be 
astonished  at  not  finding  a  greater  number  of  manual 
instructors,  and  also  that  no  country  has  thought  best  to 
introduce  into  its  public  schools  the  use  of  the  Hand,  the 
simplest,  cheapest,  most  universal,  most  obedient  and 
most  marvelous  tool  in  our  possession. 

If  we  stop  to  think  of  the  sum  of  the  countless  efforts 
of  all  kinds  that  have  been  spent  since  the  formation 
of  society  solely  on  the  unfolding  of  brain  powers,  it  might 
prove  interesting  to  consider  what  would  be  the  present 
state  of  the  world  if  the  millionth  part  of  this  outlay  in 
mind  and  money  had  been  appropriated  to  create  and 
make  fruitful  in  successive  generations  a  love  for  concrete 
work  in  all  its  forms — a  love  such  as  would  be  called 
forth,  fostered  and  promoted  by  bringing  about  an  appre¬ 
ciative  cooperation  between  the  taste  and  the  judgment, 
the  eye  and  the  hand. 

*  In  this  connection  the  following  quotation  from  Chan¬ 

ning  is  generally  known,  in  the  United  States  at  least  : 
*  “Manual  training  is  a  school  where  men  are  put  to  acquire 

energy  of  purpose  and  of  character,  a  conquest  which  is 
far  more  valuable  than  all  the  knowledge  of  the  schools.” 


88 


Manual  Training  in  France. 


[4 


Not  less  familiar  are  the  opinions  of  Pestalozzi,  Con- 
dorcet,  Rousseau,  Locke,  and  Montaigne,  all  of  whom 
would  surely  agree  with  the  English  philosopher  in  saying, 
“  since  it  cannot  be  hoped  that  a  child  will  have  time  and 
strength  to  learn  everything,  the  result  is  that  he  should 
be  taught  especially  those  branches  of  which  he  is  most  in 
need,  and  which  will  be  of  greatest  and  most  frequent  use 
to  him  in  the  world.” 

Already  in  his  day  Seneca  complains  that  this  was 
not  the  case  :  and  this  inconsistency  must  be  strikingly 
apparent,  for  Detrouve  himself,  whose  mind  was  radically 
different  from  that  of  the  Seneca,  has  thought  it  his  duty 
to  say  in  his  Satyr  icon  :  — 

“  Those  who  are  in  charge  of  the  studies  of  young 
people  do  not  devote  sufficient  care  to  make  them  familiar 
with  what  is  most  intimately  connected  with  every-day 
life  ;  thus  it  happens  that  when  they  do  breathe  the  atmos¬ 
phere  of  the  surroundings  among  which  their  destiny  calls 
them,  they  believe  they  have  been  wafted  into  a  different 
world.” 

For  many  centuries  there  has  been  no  great  change  in 
the  education  of  those  classes  whose  livelihood  depends 
on  the  daily  work  of  their  hands.  It  would  seem  as 
though  the  book  or  the  paper  were  the  only  things  they 
would  have  to  handle,  and  as  though  the  pen  were  the 
sole  tool  they  would  have  to  make  use  of.  Book,  pen,  and 
paper  are  put  into  the  hands  of  children  from  their  fifth  to 
their  thirteenth  year,  and  they  submit  during  all  this  time 
with  passive  indifference  to  being  saturated  with  the  one 
taste  for  literary  things.  Then,  when  they  have  been 
carefully  perverted  both  intellectually  and  physically  with 
respect  to  the  future  which  awaits  them  and  when  the  gate 
of  life  finally  stands  wide  open  before  them,  they  are 
calmly  expected  to  enter  it  not  only  unarmed  but  wholly 
unprepared. 

Does  this  mean  that  the  actual  primary  instruction 


5] 


Manual  Training  in  France. 


89 


should  be  slashed  to  pieces,  and  that  one  excess  should  be 
substituted  for  another?  What  rash  voice  could  formulate 
such  an  idea  ?  By  no  means,  for  every  nation  has  its 
main  roots  buried  in  the  mass  of  elementary  knowledge. 
If  it  be  in  the  nature  of  things  that  we  children  of  the 
same  country  are  called  upon  to  follow  different  paths,  we 
may  at  least  have  the  same  language,  write  it  in  the  same 
way,  and  share  the  same  history.  However,  if  the  intro¬ 
duction  of  manual  labor  become  general,  let  no  one  scorn 
the  tools,  the  needles,  the  scissors,  which  we  all  shall  have 
learned  to  handle.  On  the  contrary  let  each  one  esteem 
modesty  and  courage  in  their  attempts  to  lead  a  creditable 
and  useful  life. 

Far  then  from  wishing  to  weaken  primary  instruction, 
I  believe  it  can  be  conceived  of  as  strengthened,  but 
different:  it  would  be  reduced  perhaps  by  half  as  a  time 
for  study,  but  in  return  a  double  harvest  would  be  reaped 
by  thinning  out  the  requirments,  very  much  in  the  same 
way  as  a  forest  is  cleared  in  order  to  strengthen  its  trees. 
The  new  departure  would  consist  chiefly  in  introducing 
into  the  new  system  concrete  methods  of  instruction, 
revealing  such  principles  as  can  be  assimilated  on  the  spot, 
and  yielding  such  results  as  will  be  useful  later  on. 

This  is  in  part  the  aim  sought  by  the  Academy  of 
Medicine  in  the  active  war  it  is  waging  against  intellectual 
over-pressure.  This  is  moreover  the  tendency,  clearly 
defined  nowadays  in  France,  as  well  among  the  guardians 
of  public  instruction  as  in  the  legislative  halls  and  in  the 
general  enlightened  opinion  of  the  country. 

It  was  in  March,  1882  that  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
voted  in  favor  of  making  manual  training  obligatory  for 
the  different  grades  of  primary  instruction.  Thus  was 
realized  in  a  much  larger  sense  the  scheme  which  Con- 
dorcet  laid  before  the  Convention  nearly  a  century  ago, 
and  which  the  strong  heads  of  the  time  naturally  dubbed 


90 


Manual  Training  in  France. 


[6 


Utopia;  it  was  spoken  of  as  Condorcet’s  Utopia!  Very 
happily  this  is  the  way  with  a  goodly  number  of  Utopias  ; 
to-day  they  are  follies  in  the  sight  of  barren  scepticism, 
and  to-morrow  they  are  fruitfully  fulfilled. 

Up  to  1882,  manual  training  was  not  altogether  wanting 
in  France  ;  but  where  it  did  exist,  it  was  chiefly  in  the 
form  of  apprenticeship,  or  rather  of  undivided  prepara¬ 
tion  for  one  special  calling.  The  institutions  offering  this 
training  bore  the  characteristic  names  of  apprentice’s 
schools,  industrial  schools,  technical  schools,  schools  of 
arts  and  trades,  and  so  on.  These  institutions  were  private 
corporations  ;  their  number  was  very  limited  and  they 
could  not  give  to  their  pupils  the  general  stamp  which  is 
inherent  in  a  nationally  ordered  instruction. 

Beginning  at  the  very  foundation,  and  in  keeping  with 
the  spirit  of  the  law,  the  State  has  organized  and  is  still 
busied  in  organizing,  institutions  which  are  primary  above 
all  ;  just  as  are  those  whose  fundamental  principles  are 
the  book  and  the  pen.  The  State  should  no  more  aim  to 
turn  out  accomplished  workmen  after  a  course  in  simple 
manual  training,  than  it  claims  to  graduate  thirteen-year 
old  literati  and  historians  on  a  pen  and  book  instruction. 
But  just  as  it  ought  to  provide  the  pupils  as  far  as  possible 
with  the  knowledge  necessary  to  spell  their  language  cor¬ 
rectly  and  also  with  the  elements  of  a  tolerable  style,  just 
so  in  manual  courses  it  can  spread  a  knowledge  of  the 
correct  use  of  the  principal  tools  and  of  the  ordinary 
operations  with  them. 

Given  a  child’s  nature,  nothing  else  is  needed  in  order 
to  develop  there  the  pre-existent  germ  which  stimulates 
him  to  realization  :  he  can  then  be  roused  to  a  taste  for 
work,  and  this  is  the  inevitable  outcome  of  training  an 
underlying  skill.  The  whole  secret  is  here  :  underlying 
skill,  disclosure  of  tendencies,  taste  for  work. 

Far  from  being  well  under  way  in  1882  with  this 
worthy  end  in  view,  all  preparations  for  the  journey  had 


Manual  Training  in  France. 


9i 


7] 

still  to  be  made  ;  methods,  buildings,  stock  of  tools,  body 
of  instructors, — all  this  coupled  to  the  great  obstacle  that 
on  making  the  new  studies  obligatory,  it  had  been  for¬ 
gotten  to  make  any  appropriation  for  them. 

Thanks  however  to  the  stand  taken  by  M.  Jules  Ferry, 
Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  and  by  M.  Buisson,  Direc¬ 
tor  of  Primary  Instruction,  a  Special  Normal  School  for 
Manual  Training  was  decided  on  and  was  straightway 
created.  Admission  by  competition  was  granted  to  forty- 
eight  young  school-teachers,  graduates  of  the  Universite 
de  France.  They  were  taught  there  for  one  year  the 
following  branches : — 

1.  Experimental  physics  and  chemistry  as  illustrated 
.in  simple  phenomena,  i.  e.,  such  experiments  as  might 

be  repeated  in  elementary  schools ;  the  instruction  was 
collective  but  the  students  had  the  privilege  of  individual 
manipulation. 

2.  Natural  history,  treated  in  the  same  way. 

3.  Plane  trigonometry,  algebra,  and  elementary  me¬ 
chanics. 

4.  Descriptive  geometry  with  direct  applications  to 
perspective  and  to  stereotomy. 

5.  Drawing,  modeling,  moulding,  and  graphic  designing. 

6.  Treatment  of  wood  at  bench  and  turning-lathe. 

7.  Treatment  of  iron  in  the  smithery,  with  vice  and 
turning-lathe. 

8.  As  subordinate  studies  ;  choral  music,  French  liter¬ 
ature,  fencing,  and  fire  practice. 

This  programme  was  to  be  completed  at  a  later  period 
by  a  scientific  study  of  various  fertilizers  in  their  relation 
to  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  to  special  productions. 
Repeated  quizzes,  competitive  reviews,  and  practical  trials 
kept  these  young  teachers  always  on^the  alert.  Although 
the  programme  was  overcrowded  for  immediate  needs,  it 
was  thoroughly  carried  out,  and  was  satisfactorily  assimi¬ 
lated  in  all  its  parts. 


92  Manual  Training  in  France .  [8 

From  an  essentially  manual  point  of  view  it  covered 
about  the  following  ground  : 

Stereotomy :  Design  and  construction  of  a  soffit,  of  a 
full  centre,  of  a  segmental  arch,  of  a  stilted  arch,  of  a 
rampant  arch  ;  development  of  the  same  ;  stringer  of  a 
staircase. 

Drawing  and  Modeling  :  Rendering  of  twelve  models 
selected  from  the  collection  of  the  National  School  of 
Fine  Arts.  No  modeling  was  done,  unless  preceded  or 
followed  by  a  design  of  the  object. 

Joinery:  Besides  preliminaries,  twenty  exercises  in 
joining  and  ten  summaries. 

Smithery  :  Introductory  details,  fire-building,  striking 
in  presence  of  one,  two,  and  three  smiths,  welding,  rolling, 
measuring  the  calibre,  tempering. 

Millwright's  work:  Practice  in  flat  and  half-round 
files,  mortise-chisel,  graver,  saw. 

Wood  turning-lathe  :  Railings  of  different  styles,  Medi- 
cis  vase. 

Metal  turning-lathe  :  Slide  cylinder. 

Every  object  made  was  to  be  a  material  rendering  of 
an  off-hand  sketch.  A  memorandum  of  each  sketch  was 
entered  in  a  special  workshop  note-book,  along  with  the 
teacher’s  private  explanations  and  estimates. 

The  close  of  the  year  witnessed  the  establishment  of 
a  certificate  of  proficiency  for  such  as  were  fit  to  teach 
manual  work  in  the  normal  schools  and  in  the  higher 
primary  schools.  On  examination  this  certificate  was 
awarded  to  most  of  the  students  in  the  first  promotion  : 
the  few  backward  ones  obtained  this  distinction  in  the 
following  year,  along  with  twenty-four  new  students  of  the 
second  promotion. 

The  Special  School  has  thus  graduated  seventy-two 
professors  of  manual  training  :  since  then,  the  normal 
school  in  St.  Cloud  has  swelled  the  list  by  a  few  adepts, 
and  some  independent  teachers  have  shown  themselves 


9] 


93 


Manual  Training  in  France. 

so  well  versed  in  the  several  requirements  as  to  pass 
satisfactory  examinations  in  the  same.  Thus  it  is  that 
now,  in  strict  compliance  with  the  law,  each  one  of  our 
ninety  normal  schools,  including  Corsica  and  Algeria,  is 
provided  with  a  competent  professor  of  manual  training. 
On  the  other  hand  these  schools  are  fully  equipped  with 
laboratories,  workshops,  and  tools  :  with  respect  to  the 
new  branches,  the  programme  is  identical  with  the  one 
adopted  by  the  Special  Normal  School,  minus  the  above- 
mentioned  3rd,  4th,  and  the  latter  part  of  8th.  The  course 
is  completed  within  three  years  at  the  rate  of  four  hours 
per  week,  a  rate  which  seems  very  inadequate. 

Still  these  normal  schools  are  beginning  now  to  gradu¬ 
ate  every  year  something  like  1500  teachers,  who  are 
pretty  well  fitted  to  introduce  the  new  studies  in  the 
numerous  continuation  schools.  The  outlook  for  the 
elementary  schools  is  also  bright,  and  it  may  be  hoped 
that  they  will  delay  no  longer  in  incorporating  special 
teachers  in  their  body  of  instructors.  Summer  schools  are 
even  being  opened  gradually  in  the  normal  schools  to 
those  teachers  in  each  department  who  will  pledge  them¬ 
selves  to  regular  attendance.  These  voluntary  teachers 
carry  back  to  their  schools  a  manual  knowledge  which  is 
sufficient  inasmuch  as  it  is  primary:  their  own  works  are 
their  models  and  their  note-book  is  their  guide.  The 
remainder  of  their  equipment,  which  in  the  beginning  need 
be  only  slight  in  the  way  of  buildings  and  tools,  will 
depend  altogether  on  the  General  Councils  and  on  the 
Municipalities. 

In  fifteen  years  from  now,  nearly  all  our  primary  high 
schools  and  most  of  our  40,000  elementary  schools  for 
boys  ought  to  provide  our  2,750,000  male  children  of  the 
working-classes  with  the  instruction  which  will  fit  them 
completely  for  the  future  they  have  in  store.1 


1  If  we  do  not  speak  of  the  girls,  it  is  because  they  have  already  to  a  certain  extent  a 
suitable  primary  manual  training,  consisting  of  needlework,  cutting  out,  and  dressmaking. 


94  Manual  Training  in  France.  [io 

This  period  of  expectation  would  have  been  shortened, 
and  the  standard  of  manual  training  would  surely  have 
been  raised,  if  the  Special  Normal  School  for  Manual 
Training,  founded  by  M.  J.  Ferry,  had  been  developed 
instead  of  suppressed  by  his  second  successor;  unfortu¬ 
nately,  ministers  have  this  point  in  common  with  the 
days, — they  follow  upon  one  another  without  being  alike. 

It  is  a  fact  that  everywhere,  without  exception,  where 
the  equipment  is  decent  and  the  professor  suitable,  manual 
training  is  as  much  of  an  attraction  to  the  pupils  of  various 
ages  as  to  the  student-teachers  of  the  normal  schools. 
The  recent  convention  of  academical  rectors  and  of  gene¬ 
ral  inspectors  of  primary  instruction,  presided  over  by  the 
Minister,  was  unanimous  in  favor  of  the  new  departure  : 
such  was  the  interest  manifested  by  the  students  of  the 
normal  schools,  that  at  times  it  had  even  been  necessary 
to  restrict  their  enthusiasm  in  workshop  matters.  We 
wish  it  to  be  always  well  borne  in  mind  that  we  are 
dealing  here  only  with  the  question  of  primary  manual 
training,  such  as  is  generally  given  by  the  State. 

Inasmuch  as  the  variety  of  private  enterprises  is  as 
great  as  the  number  of  individual  callings,  it  is  not  to  be 
expected  that  their  soul  and  mechanism  should  emanate 
from  the  government.  In  this  case,  it  is  a  matter  as  we 
have  already  stated  of  regions,  departments,  cities,  indus¬ 
trial  syndicates  or  private  concerns.  These  special  and 
varied  demands  have  for  some  time  been  met  in  France 
by  a  large  number  of  private  establishments.  The  last 
few  years  have  seen  them  well  started  towards  rapid 
enlargement,  and  the  organization  of  syndicates  can  only 
hasten  their  development. 

Heretofore  the  State  was  satisfied  with  providing  a 
few  important  typical  institutions,  such  as  the  National 
Schools  of  Arts  and  Trades  which  were  founded  long  ago 
in  Chalons,  Aix,  and  Angers.  The  experiment  is  to  be 
completed  by  trial  district-schools  in  Vierzon,  Yoiron,  and 


•1] 


Manual  Training  in  France. 


95 


Armentieres.  These  schools,  like  the  former  ones,  will 
receive  boarders  and  will  give  instruction  from  the  primary 
department  up  to  a  well-defined  idea  of  the  industrial 
occupations  of  the  country. 

The  rapid  spread  of  general  manual  training  is  greatly 
hampered  by  the  lack  of  space  available  in  primary 
schools  and  moreover  by  a  temporary  scarcity  of  the 
department  and  communal  funds.  Great  sacrifices  have 
been  required  and  made  in  view  of  building  local  railroads, 
town-halls  and  school-houses,  and,  as  is  always  the  case, 
noble  impulses  have  been  followed  to  the  detriment  of 
future  welfare.  Nevertheless,  besides  these  primary  high 
schools  which  are  being  equipped  day  by  day,  there  is 
a  very  large  number  of  elementary  schools  which  have 
now  introduced  manual  training  in  various  stages.  At  all 
events  the  difficulties  have  been  diminished,  in  a  measure, 
by  the  programmes  adopted  by  the  High  Council  of  Pub¬ 
lic  Instruction,  small  classes  being  assigned  such  work  as 
requires  neither  workshop  nor  special  equipment. 

For  the  time  being  and  awaiting  further  reforms,  manual 
work  enters  under  the  head  of  physical  education.  A 
synopsis  of  the  same  is  as  follows  : — 


BOYS. 


5 — 7  Years. 


7—9  Years. 


9 — 11  Years. 


11—13  Years. 


Easy  exercises  in 
plaiting,  folding,  and 
■weaving. 

Cutting  out  pieces 
of  colored  paper  and 
uniting  them  in  geo¬ 
metric  designs. 

Easy  basket-work. 

Combinations  of 
colored  worsteds  on 
canvas  or  on  paper. 


Development  of 
dexterity. 

Construction  o  f 
geometric  solids  out 
of  paste-board. 

Basket-work,  com¬ 
binations  of  many 
colored  twigs. 

Modeling. 

Reproduction  o  f 
geometric  solids  and 
of  very  simple 
objects. 


Wooden  slips 
adorned  with  paint¬ 
ed  pictures  and 
colored  paper. 

Easy  wire-work ; 
trellis-work. 

Combination  of 
wire  and  wood-work ; 
cages. 

Modeling  simple 
architectural  orna¬ 
ments. 

Facts  about  the 
most  common  tools. 


Combined  exercises 
in  drawing  and 
modeling. 

Objects  sketched 
on  a  given  scale  and 
vice-versa — o  b  j  e  c  t  s 
reproduced  from  a 
sketch  on  a  given 
scale. 

Chief  tools  used  in 
wood-work. 

Graduated  exer¬ 
cises. 

Planing,  sawing 
wood,  simple  joinery. 

Boxes,  nailed  or  put 
together  w  i  t  h  o  u 
joints. 

Turning-lathe. 

Turning  very  sim¬ 
ple  objects. 

Chief  tools  used  in 
iron-work. 

File  exercises,  par¬ 
ing  or  polishing 
rough  pig-iron  an  d 
cast-iron. 


GIBLS. 


5 — 7  Years. 

7—9  Years. 

9—11  Years. 

11 — 13  Years. 

Easy  Froebel  exer- 

Knitting  and  study 

Knitting  and  taking 

Knitting  skirts. 

cises. 

of  the  stitch. 

up  loose  stitches. 

jackets,  mittens. 

Plaiting,  folding. 

Meshes  on  the  right 

Marking  on  canvas, 

Marking  on  linen. 

weaving. 

and  wrong  sides. 

forward  stitch,  side 

Stitching,  gathers. 

Knitting  small  arti- 

Ribbed  work. 

stitch,  back  stitch. 

buttonholes. 

cles. 

increasing,  diminish¬ 
ing. 

Making  stitch,  on 

Overcasting-stitch . 
Plain  seam,  hem ; 
double  seam. 

Mending  garments, 
darning. 

Elements  of  cutting 

canvas. 

Elements  of  sewing. 

Hems  and  overcast¬ 
ings. 

Manual  exercises  to 
develop  dexterity. 

Cutting  out  and 
joining  colored  paper. 

Easy  trials  in 

modeling. 

Overcastings  o  n 

selvedge. 

Overcastings  o  n 

turned  in  folds. 

Towels,  napkins, 
handkerchiefs, 
aprons,  shirts :  piec¬ 
ing. 

and  making  up  very 
simple  garments. 

Elements  of  domes¬ 
tic  economy  in  its 
relation  to  the  kitch¬ 
en,  to  washing  clothes 
and  keeping  them  in 
repair,  to  the  toilet, 
to  household  duties, 
to  the  garden,  and  to 
the  poultry-yard. 

13] 


Manual  Training  in  France . 


97 


Such  is  nowadays  in  France  the  part  which  manual 
training  plays  in  elementary  schools.  This  programme 
may  be  altered  to  meet  the  wants  of  any  and  every  school, 
and  in  such  a  way  that  each  school  can  select  a  part  of  the 
whole  in  keeping  with  its  means.  In  any  case  the  Council 
of  every  department  is  vested  with  a  certain  authority  in 
matters  of  changes  such  as  it  may  seem  wise  to  bring 
about  in  local  applications  of  manual  training. 

A  committee  has  recently  been  formed  with  the  mission 
of  studying  up  the  question  of  agricultural  training  in 
normal  schools,  primary  high  schools,  and  elementary 
schools. 

Personally  we  do  not  think  that  the  type  of  programme 
shown  above  should  be  maintained  as  a  whole,  at  least  as 
far  as  the  boys  are  concerned. 

It  seems  to  us  that  up  to  the  eleventh  year  there  is  not 
a  sufficient  demand  made  upon  individual  thought  and 
judgment,  or  upon  the  complete  subjection  of  the  hand 
to  an  instantaneous  decision  of  eye  and  will.  Moreover, 
physical  strength  meets  with  no  means  or  incentive 
to  develop.  Weaving,  basket-work,  plaiting, — all  this  is 
quiet  work,  where  the  fingers  are  trained  to  move  evenly 
and  mechanically,  without  any  intellectual  exertion.  The 
proof  of  this  lies  in  the  fact  that  this  kind  of  work  is  intro¬ 
duced  with  greatest  ease  in  the  asylums  for  the  blind  and 
weak-minded.  We  believe  that  the  true  aim  of  manual 
training  should  be  to  accustom  a  child  at  an  early  age  to 
work  standing,  and  as  far  as  possible,  to  bring  all  parts  of 
his  body  into  play.  Does  he  not  do  this  anyway,  if  left  to 
himself?  Is  it  not  a  source  of  continual  wonder  to  see  the 
youngest  children  stand  from  morning  to  night :  they  are 
on  such  a  constant  go  that  it  is  impossible  for  their 
parents  to  keep  up  with  them.  And  then,  thanks  to  this 
healthful  weariness,  when  night  comes  on  they  fall  into  a 
sound  sleep  from  which  they  arise  at  early  dawn  refreshed 
and  ready  to  begin  all  over  again. 


98 


Manual  Training  in  France . 


The  needs  of  a  child  are  made  evident  by  his  love  for 
hoops,  tops,  ball-playing  in  all  its  phases,  and  so  on.  A 
child  must  dig  ditches,  build  dams,  climb  trees,  and  experi¬ 
ment  with  the  power  of  his  lungs  :  he  must  do  all  this  and 
in  the  same  day.  He  will  even  skip  his  meals,  if  he  has 
a  chance. 

It  is  verv  true  that  all  this  cannot  be  done  in  a  school  : 
* 

still  the  natural  inclinations  of  a  child  should  not  be 
tampered  with,  but  this  overflow  of  vital  energy  should  be 
controlled  in  such  a  way  as  to  direct  the  main  course  into 
a  channel  of  future  usefulness. 

Thanks  to  the  freedom  of  scope  and  means  which  the 
Municipal  Council  of  Paris  has  given  us,  it  is  on  these 
lines  that  we  seek  to  promote  manual  training  in  the 
public  school  of  Rue  Tournefort.  We  lay  special  stress 
upon  our  methods,  because  this  institution  realizes  a  type 
whose  tendency  is  to  spread  as  a  whole  or  in  part. 

There,  all  children  from  the  ages  of  six  and  seven  years 
have  a  part  in  active  manual  work.  As  soon  as  they 
enter  school  they  begin  modeling,  and  they  keep  up  the 
study  during  their  entire  school  course.  They  are  also 
taught  to  treat  soft  wood  with  the  saw,  the  rasp,  the 
chisel,  and  the  mortise-chisel.  They  are  then  advanced 
to  the  plane,  the  turning-lathe,  and  the  iron-work  includ¬ 
ing  furnace  duty. 

At  a  very  early  age  they  begin  to  sketch  on  a  given 
scale,  all  draughting  being  recorded  in  a  note-book  which 
is  never  to  leave  them.  These  memoranda  are  chaotic 
at  first,  but  they  assume  rapidly  a  definite  shape  :  the 
accounts  of  daily  work  are  tabulated  as  regards  the  nature 
of  the  work,  its  material,  and  the  time  spent  on  it. 

The  school  is  made  up  of  five  classes,  the  highest  being 
intended  for  special  or  post-graduate  work. 


12-14  years  Special  Class  devotes  21  hours  a  week  to  manual  work. 
10-12  “  1st  “  “  8| 

9-11  “  2nd  “  “  5 

8-10  “  3rd  “  “4 

7-9  “  4th  “  “3 


ft  ft 

a 
a 
<  < 


<< 

a 

ft  i 


ft  ft 
ft  ft 
ft  ft 
ft  ft 


ftft 
ft  ft 
ftft 
ftft 


ft  ft 
ft  ft 
ft  ft 
(ft 


ftft 
ft  ft 
ft  ft 
ft  ft 


ftft 


i5] 


Manual  Training  in  France. 


99 


No  attempt  is  made  to  specialize  before  the  Special 
Class.  Once  there  students  are  given  successively  finish¬ 
ing  touches  in  a  complete  general  training,  but  besides 
that,  they  have  access  to  such  special  branches  as  will 
foster  more  especially  an  avowed  bent. 

The  new  instruction  involves  an  additional  expense  of 
15000  francs  a  year  ;  the  school  receives  260  children, 
and  were  it  not  for  its  small  quarters  it  could  take  in  300 
without  its  outlay  being  increased  other  than  by  the 
expenditure  for  raw  material. 

This  institution  has  been  in  operation  now  for  nearly 
sixteen  years,  and  the  experiment  may  be  considered  a 
success  from  the  triple  point  of  view  of  hygiene,  general 
instruction,  and  practical  results.  The  children  thrive 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that  their  attendance  in  school 
is  longer  by  two  hours  than  the  usual  regulations  provide. 
Their  occupations  are  so  varied,  in  accordance  with  their 
mental  and  physical  aptitudes,  that  there  is  no  sign  of 
weariness  after  their  exertions  of  mind  and  body.  Ardor 
pervades  them  in  a  characteristic  way :  their  heaviest 
punishment  is  to  be  debarred  from  the  workshop. 

As  regards  instruction,  the  annual  examination  ordeal 
for  the  certificate  of  proficiency  in  primary  studies  is  a 
sufficient  relative  criterion  :  it  proves  that  the  scholars 
from  the  Rue  Tournefort  are  among  the  best  off,  as  far  as 
scholastic  knowledge  is  concerned.  Thus,  in  addition  to 
what  their  comrades  in  other  schools  know,  they  are 
indebted  to  the  new  instruction  for  all  the  manual  training 
they  have  acquired.  The  practical  results  are  made  mani¬ 
fest  in  the  facilities  for  finding  good  apprenticeships,  for 
reducing  their  length,  and  for  being  sooner  compensated. 

Besides  choice  workmen  devoted  to  their  calling,  this 
school  has  graduated  expert  accountants,  teachers,  pro¬ 
fessors  even  of  higher  branches,  and  artists:  one  of  these, 
famous  when  twenty  years  old  for  his  water-colors,  is  now 
much  sought  after  by  New  York  publishing  houses. 


ioo  Manual  Training  in  France.  [16 

Of  the  two  hundred  boys’  schools  in  the  city  of  Paris, 
about  one-half  are  equipped  with  benches  and  turning- 
lathes,  at  which  the  older  scholars  do  manual  work.  The 
Municipal  Council  and  the  Board  of  Instruction  are  both 
endowed  with  the  very  best  will,  and  still  they  have  not 
dared  to  settle  definitely  the  amount  of  importance  to  be 
attached  to  primary  manual  training.  As  a  consequence, 
this  instruction  is  somewhat  subordinate,  and  up  to  the 
present  time  the  results  attained  are  not  in  proportion  to 
the  sacrifices  made.  Another  cause  of  delay  is  the  lack  of 
teachers  well  qualified  in  point  of  methods  and  statements. 
As  a  matter  of  necessity  workmen  are  called  in  :  they  are 
good  practical  men  as  far  as  their  own  work  goes  ;  but 
when  it  comes  to  imparting  knowledge,  their  teaching  is 
decidedly  empirical. 

This  state  of  affairs  has  very  happily  reached  a  climax 
and  a  sweeping  change  will  take  place  :  the  teachers  will 
now  be  recruited  from  the  ranks  of  Normal  School  gradu¬ 
ates  of  the  department  of  the  Seine. 

We  have  stated  above  that  nowadays  all  normal  schools 
give  manual  instruction  :  the  school  at  Auteuil  especially, 
(Seine  department),  has  been  thoroughly  equipped  for  the 
past  three  years  and  graduates  every  year  some  thirty 
teachers  who  are  well  able  to  fill  to  some  advantage  the 
places  of  present  workmen. 

The  case  will  be  the  same  in  other  departments  in 
proportion  to  their  population. 

At  all  events  the  extension  of  manual  knowledge  can 
only  be  hastened  still  more  by  the  decisions  of  the  Higher 
Council  of  Public  Instruction.  Ministerial  resolutions,  and 
if  need  be,  special  decrees  insure  to  these  decisions  a  legal 
sanction. 

In  accordance  with  them  all,  every  primary  high  school 
must  be  provided  with  a  workshop,  and  there  shall 
be  awarded  certificates  of  proficiency  in  higher  primary 
studies,  including  manual  work.  These  two,  three,  and 


iy\  Manual  Training  in  France.  ioi 

four  year  schools  are  urgently  demanded  by  the  depart¬ 
ments  and  cities  :  they  apply  to  a  part  of  the  studying 
population  that  has  already  received  the  certificate  for 
elementary  primary  instruction,  and  that  is  not  compelled 
to  seek  directly  an  apprenticeship. 

Now  it  happens  that  the  committee  intrusted  with  the 
revision  of  the  programme  desires  to  retain  a  general 
course  of  study  during  the  first  year  only  in  the  high 
schools  :  this  year  should  be  a  sort  of  review.  Then  from 
the  second  year  on  the  studies  are  to  become  more  and 
more  professional,  and  are  to  be  based  chiefly  on  the  main 
industries  of  the  country.  Manual  training  will  be  obliga¬ 
tory  four  hours  a  week  during  the  first  year,  five  hours  in 
the  second  year,  and  six  hours  throughout  the  third  and 
fourth  years. 

If  we  take  into  account  that  the  prime  elements  of  this 
training  have  had  full  chance  to  become  assimilated  in  the 
elementary  school  during  a  minimum  period  of  six  years, 
they  will  surely  bear  fruit  after  an  average  apprenticeship 
of  four  years,  or  after  an  additional  special  training  in 
the  high  schools. 

The  outlook  should  be  a  bright  one  for  future  genera¬ 
tions,  inasmuch  as  being  better  prepared  to  battle  with 
life  they  will  show  greater  love  for  work,  and  will  be  all 
the  more  happy  and  honored  on  that  account. 


Suggestions  for  the  Teaching  of  Color. 


As  psychology  recognizes  the  important  part  that  color 
plays  in  the  development  of  the  child’s  mind,  the  delight 
produced  by  the  color  sensation,  and  the  fact  that  external 
forms  are  more  readily  perceived  where  it  exists,  there 
seems  a  need  of  proper  and  systematic  teaching  of  this 
subject  in  our  schools.  Just  what  may  be  done,  how 
much,  and  the  exact  value  of  such  teaching  we  cannot 
determine  at  present,  but  a  few  suggestions  as  to  ways, 
means,  and  possibilities  may,  I  trust,  be  helpful.  The 
manner  of  teaching  this  subject  of  color  will  undoubtedly 
always  be  more  or  less  individual,  and  subject  to  existing 
conditions  in  various  localities;  yet  there  are  certain  fun¬ 
damental  laws  and  principles  which  certainly  should  be 
understood  by  the  teachers  in  our  schools,  however  little 
opportunity  they  may  have  for  using  them.  We  do  know 
to  be  sure  that  a  keen,  sensitive  color  sense  is  inborn,  a 
gift  to  the  fortunate  individual,  like  a  retentive  memory, 
great  power  of  speech,  or  a  musical  voice  ;  but  when  we 
observe  how  savage  even  now  is  the  taste  of  the  masses, 
surely  much  may  be  done  in  quickening  and  guiding  the 
national  taste  by  judicious  training.  We  never  do  any¬ 
thing  by  halves  here  in  America.  Because  some  “artiste  ” 
in  modes  in  a  moment  of  inspiration  throws  certain  colors 
together,  audacious  in  combination,  possible  only  when 
arranged  by  a  master  hand,  the  effect  softened  here  and 
there  by  a  deft  touch,  straightway  many  of  our  maidens 
steal  the  audacity  but  miss  the  artistic  knowledge  or 
inspiration.  Who  has  not  suffered  from  the  bright  green 


[  1 9  Suggestions  for  the  Teaching  of  Color.  103 

dresses  recently  worn,  when  because  it  was  fashionable  to 
wear  flowers  as  a  decoration,  a  bunch  of  violets  or  bright 
crimson  roses  often  became  the  prominent  adornment.  K- 
blonde  feels  that  blue  is  her  color,  so  with  a  blind  freedom 
from  all  restraint  as  to  the  harmonious  whole  of  her 
costume,  her  dress  is  one  hue  of  blue,  her  bonnet  another, 
with  here  and  there  several  tints  and  shades  all  sounding 
a  different  key  and  so  out  of  tune.  A  walk  through  any 
of  our  shops  will  reveal  quantities  of  both  cheap  and 
expensive  trash  whose  only  reason  to  be  is  the  popular 
demand  for  novelty.  The  uncultured  classes  both  rich 
and  poor  live  at  an  extravagant  pace,  and  prefer  show  and 
display  at  the  expense  of  good  taste  or  comfort.  Is  there 
anything  we  can  do  in  the  schools  to  lay  the  foundation 
for  something  better,  for  lives  and  purposes  honest  and 
true  ?  It  is  a  solemn  thought  that  the  shaping  of  so  many 
young  lives  is  in  our  hands,  for  the  mass  of  the  children 
are  in  the  public  schools ;  these  children  are  to  become 
our  citizens  and  through  their  childhood  and  during  their 
school  life  one  important  function  is  not  only  to  educate 
but  in  so  doing  to  elevate. 

We  are  all  unconsciously  building  an  American  school 
of  art.  Purely  national  it  may  not  be  for  a  long  time  ;  good 
it  will  be,  if  artists,  teachers,  and  industrial  workers  of  all 
kinds,  work  for  the  best  and  put  aside  the  bad.  Let  us 
recognize  the  humanizing  influence  of  the  beautiful,  and 
strive  for  it,  and  be  not  overcome  by  the  strictly  useful  and 
practical. 

In  our  modern  methods  we  reach  the  child  through  his 
senses.  A  young  child  springs  toward  a  bright  colored 
ball  when  such  an  object  without  color  might  pass  unno¬ 
ticed.  This  physical  gladness  which  young  children  feel 
in  the  presence  of  color  we  may  use  to  advantage  in  the 
early  study  of  form.  The  use  of  color  beyond  the  first 
years  except  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  its  properties  and 
its  application  in  decorative  design,  must,  it  seems  to  me, 


104  Suggestions  for  the  Teaching  of  Color.  20] 

be  restricted,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  handling  the 
medium,  and  the  need  of  the  power  to  draw,  to  see  light 
and  shade,  and  to  express  much  in  a  few  telling  touches. 
What  needs  to  go  before  really  artistic  expression  of  color 
from  nature,  is  good  training  in  drawing  and  modeling, 
with  a  knowledge  of  light,  and  shade,  all  leading  up  to  the 
intelligent  use  of  color  in  the  really  artistic  sense. 

There  is  another  and  important  reason  why  children 
should  at  least  know  one  color  from  another.  We  are 
told  on  the  best  of  authority  that  color  blindness  is  alarm- 
ingly  prevalent.  I  will  spare  you  the  statistics  which  you 
can  easily  look  up  for  yourselves,  but  they  are  startling. 
This  is  significant  however,  that  red  and  green  are  the 
colors  which  the  color  blind  most  readily  fail  to  distinguish; 
yet  it  so  happens  that  these  are  the  two  colors  most  used 
for  signals  on  railroads  and  ships.  The  cause  of  color 
blindness  is  in  dispute,  there  being  no  apparent  difference 
between  the  eyes  of  those  who  readily  detect  colors  and 
those  who  are  color  blind.  One  thing  is  evident  that  the 
study  of  color  is  a  possible  means  of  developing  a  weak 
or  latent  color  sense.  With  the  little  ones  there  are  many 
ways  of  making  the  study  delightful  and  instructive,  as 
matching  bits  of  woolen  cloth  and  skeins  of  worsted, 
colored  papers,  silk  and  so  on,  taking  great  care  that  the 
color  is  taught  before  the  color-name  ;  as  children  who 
are  really  color  blind  have  been  known  to  associate  the 
name  with  some  special  spot  on  a  color  chart,  or  form 
of  material  without  really  recognizing  the  color  by  the 
color  sense.  In  order  to  have  the  same  sense  impressions 
repeated  sufficiently  for  them  to  become  fixed  facts  in  the 
mind  of  the  child,  it  seems  well  to  deal  for  some  time — 
certainly  in  their  paper  folding  and  cutting — with  the 
primary  colors  only,  and  before  I  suggest  certain  ways  of 
taking  up  such  exercises  let  us  consider  for  a  little  what 
we  mean  by  primary  colors.  The  scientists  and  artists 
sometimes  differ  in  their  statements  as  to  what  colors 


2 1]  Suggestions  for  the  Teaching  of  Color.  105 

shall  be  called  primary.  Some  scientists  show  that  red, 
green,  and  violet,  are  the  primary  colors  in  the  spectrum  ; 
the  other  colors  orange,  yellow,  and  blue  being  made  by 
their  combination.  Artists  dealing  with  pigments  find 
that  they  cannot  produce  yellow,  red,  or  blue  by  the  union 
of  any  other  colors  and  that  green,  orange,  and  violet  or 
purple  may  be  made  by  uniting  two  of  these  first  named 
pigments.  So  they  decide  that  yellow,  red,  and  blue  are 
the  primary  colors.  From  these  conclusions  we  are 
forced  to  acknowledge  a  spectrum  basis  of  color,  and  a 
pigment  basis.  Again,  there  are  those  who  contend  that 
the  primary  colors  are  yellow,  red,  and  blue  both  in  the 
spectrum,  and  with  pigments,  and  reason  the  subject  out 
on  this  basis.  In  the  spectrum  or  rainbow  we  see  seven 
colors ;  violet  and  indigo  being  hues  of  blue,  we  can 
reduce  the  spectrum  to  violet,  blue,  green,  yellow,  orange, 
and  red.  As  the  orange  comes  midway  between  yellow 
and  red,  the  green  between  yellow  and  blue,  and  the 
violet  which  is  beside  the  blue  partakes  of  the  red,  it  may 
be  assumed  that  orange  is  formed  by  a  combination  of 
red  and  yellow  rays  of  light,  green  by  rays  of  yellow  and 
blue,  and  purple  or  violet  by  rays  of  blue  and  red.  By 
this  reasoning  yellow,  red,  and  blue  are  proved  to  be  pri¬ 
mary  colors  even  in  the  spectrum.  They  are  surely  so 
in  pigments,  and  as  we  cannot  imprison  the  sunbeam  or 
revel  in  the  living  colors  of  the  sunset,  we  must  do  the 
best  we  can  with  the  means  we  have  at  hand. 

From  the  first  we  shall  have  to  contend  with  the  dis¬ 
advantage  that  none  of  the  pigments  are  perfectly  pure,  for 
while  the  union  of  the  spectrum  colors  of  yellow,  red,  and 
blue  produces  white  light,  the  same  combination  with 
paints  gives  us  only  gray,  light  or  dark,  according  to 
intensity. 

In  the  school-room,  for  practical  use  and  dealing  with 
water  colors,  the  best  paints  to  use  are  gamboge,  carmine, 
and  Prussian  blue  with  Payne’s  gray  or  neutral  tint,  to 


io 6  Suggestions  for  the  Teaching  of  Color.  [22 

make  shades  or  dulled  colors.  These  paints  work  freely, 
mix  well  and  are  not  expensive.  The  proportion  which 
the  primaries  bear  to  each  other  is  said  to  be  as  three  of 
yellow,  five  of  red,  and  eight  of  blue,  and  we  see  the  three 
primary  colors  either  in  their  purity  or  in  combination  in 
everything  we  look  at,  which  accounts  in  a  way  for  the 
harmony  of  complementaries.  If  we  look  at  a  yellow 
object,  such  as  a  yellow  vase  or  yellow  drapery,  we  really 
see  an  effect  of  purple  or  violet  in  the  surroundings.  It 
is  of  course  delicate  and  subtile,  we  may  not  even  be 
conscious  of  it.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  retina  of 
the  eye  becomes  weary  of  one  color  and  the  other  two 
primaries,  red  and  blue,  are  seen  in  combination  as  a 
purple  or  violet  hue  which  is  cast  in  the  shadows  of  the 
drapery  or  on  some  object  adjacent  to  the  vase.  This  may 
be  proved  to  children  by  the  coloring  of  discs  and  observ¬ 
ing  the  halo  which  finally  appears  about  the  disc.  In 
dealing  with  paints  or  colored  papers,  complementaries, 
such  as  purple  and  yellow,  red  and  green,  or  blue  and 
orange,  are  too  strong  in  contrast  to  be  put  directly 
together.  The  effect  is  too  harsh.  It  is  true  that  they 
enhance  each  other,  but  except  in  tints  or  when  modified 
by  softening  separations  and  surroundings  they  should 
not  be  placed  in  juxtaposition.  It  may  be  said,  the  rose 
is  surrounded  by  green,  oranges  with  their  glossy  leaves 
stand  out  against  the  deep  blue  of  a  tropical  sky.  This  is 
true,  but  the  rose  is  not  seen  as  pure  red,  or  the  leaves  as 
pure  green  ;  the  rose  is  modified  by  its  light  and  shade, 
the  influence  of  its  surroundings,  and  by  the  gray  of  the 
atmosphere.  Green  leaves  are  very  gray  in  their  high 
lights  and  the  shadows  which  are  nearest  to  the  strongest 
green  are  seen  broken  by  bits  of  red,  invisible  perhaps 
to  the  untrained  eye  yet  always  present  to  the  careful 
observer.  Secondary  colors  are  those  derived  from  the 
combination  of  two  primaries.  This  it  is  well  to  illustrate 
before  the  children  with  paints  and  glasses  of  water,  or 


23]  Suggestions  for  the  Teaching  of  Color.  107 

better  still  the  children  may  mix  the  colors  and  produce 
the  results  themselves.  Blue  and  red  for  instance  will 
make  purple,  leaving  yellow,  which  being  the  remaining 
primary  color  is  accordingly  complementary  to  purple. 
Assuming  the  pigment  basis  always,  orange,  green  and 
purple  are  the  secondaries.  The  tertiaries,  citrine,  russet 
and  olive  (by  some  called  gray)  are  those  produced  by  the 
union  of  any  two  of  the  secondaries.  Orange  and  green, 
for  example,  make  citrine.  As  orange  is  composed  of  the 
primaries,  red  and  yellow,  and  green  of  blue  and  yellow  it 
follows  that  in  citrine  there  is  an  excess  of  yellow  ;  con¬ 
sequently  it  demands  its  complementary,  purple.  There¬ 
fore  purple  is  complementary  to  yellow  and  in  strong 
contrast  with  it,  and  also  complementary  to  citrine  and  in 
subdued  contrast  with  it.  Russet  is  formed  by  the  mixture 
of  orange  and  purple  and  as  there  is  red  in  both  of  these 
secondaries,  it  follows  that  there  is  an  excess  of  red  in 
russet.  So  that  russet  is  the  subdued  complementary  of 
green.  By  the  same  reasoning,  olive  (which  is  so  gray 
in  tone  as  to  be  called  gray  by  some  authorities)  har¬ 
monizes  with  orange. 

These  tertiary  colors  are  the  rich  dull  colors  that  we 
enjoy  about  us  in  home  decorations  such  as  wall-papers, 
draperies,  carpets  and  the  like.  A  bit  of  high  color  how¬ 
ever  here  and  there  is  necessary  to  enliven  the  general 
effect.  Because  tertiary  colors  are  quiet  and  subdued,  it 
does  not  follow  that  their  exclusive  use  is  desirable.  Dark 
rooms  gain  much  by  light  coloring  in  the  decoration,  and 
tints  of  tertiaries  are  often  preferable  to  their  full  strength. 
An  artistic  sense  of  the  fitness  of  things  is  so  essential  in 
house  decoration  that  it  is  quit^e  common  at  this  time  for 
those  who  feel  that  they  have  not  had  sufficient  education 
in  such  matters  to  employ  a  professional  decorator,  who 
takes  the  matter  entirely  in  charge,  and,  whether  it  be  a 
room  or  the  whole  furnishing  of  a  house,  sees  to  it  that  the 
harmony  is  perfect  throughout.  There  are  those  however, 


108  Snggestio7is  for  the  Teaching  of  Color.  [24 

ready  to  undertake  such  matters,  who  have  little  sense  of 
beauty  or  fitness.  “Dull  colors  are  the  fashion, ”  they 
inform  the  customer.  Straightway  the  change  in  the  house 
begins.  Much  of  the  furniture  is  ebony,  the  wall  paper  is 
dark  and  all  the  fabrics  dingy  ;  a  funereal  gloom  settles 
upon  everything  ;  the  effect  in  fact  is  so  depressing  that 
the  dissatisfied  seeker  after  the  aesthetic,  while  resigned 
to  the  situation,  does  hope  that  lively  colors  will  be  the 
fashion  again  soon. 

It  is  affectation  to  admire  nothing  but  fade,  or  dulled 
colors,  and  reminds  one  of  the  expression  of  the  young 
woman  who  undoubtedly  pretended  to  more  than  she  felt 
when  asked  “Is  not  that  a  lovely  sunset?”  answered, 
“  Yes,  but  the  coloring  is  crude.”  It  is  really  much  more 
difficult  to  make  a  good  decorative  design  using  primaries 
or  even  secondaries  than  to  combine  the  subdued  tertiary 
colors.  Faults  of  proportion  are  more  quickly  recognized 
and  the  bright  colors  require  great  care  in  distribution  and 
separation.  In  stained  glass  we  get  some  lovely  softened 
effects  by  the  aid  of  the  light  which  shines  through.  By 
the  juxtaposition  of  red  and  blue  for  example  the  light 
softening  and  yet  brightening  the  colors,  a  purple  bloom 
results  and  great  richness  of  effect.  The  nearer  we  can 
use  color  in  its  purity  the  better,  but  it  takes  a  master  hand 
to  make  the  arrangement  artistic  and  tasteful.  Egyptians, 
Greeks,  Arabs,  and  Moors  used  primary  colors  almost 
entirely  during  the  earliest  and  best  periods  of  their  art. 
In  the  periods  of  decadence,  red  and  green  are  found  side 
by  side  where  before  were  red  and  blue.  In  Pompeii  every 
variety  of  shade  and  tone  was  employed  but  the  bright 
colors  were  different  and  probably  duller  than  the  chemi¬ 
cal  colors  of  to-day. 

In  the  High  School  (if  not  before)  the  study  of  Historic 
Ornament  may  include  color,  not  only  by  the  rendering 
of  decorative  designs  of  special  periods  but  also  in  study¬ 
ing  the  people  of  those  periods,  their  history  and  their 


25]  Suggestions  for  the  Teaching  of  Color.  109 

architecture.  The  Egyptians  expressed  color  in  a  con¬ 
ventional  manner.  It  was  usually  in  flat  tints  and  good 
examples  may  now  be  seen  on  some  of  the  carefully 
preserved  mummy  cases.  Many  of  their  colors  were  very 
•  resinous  which  in  part  accounts  for  their  remarkable  pres¬ 
ervation.  There  is  interest  and  profit  in  the  study  of  the 
art  of  any  people,  whether  it  be  the  efforts  of  the  untutored 
savage  or  the  expression  of  high  poetic  thought,  with  all 
the  added  advantage  of  technical  excellence. 

The  perspective  of  color  is  sometimes  made  use  of  in 
decoration,  so  that  certain  impressions  almost  of  relief 
may  be  produced.  They  are  vague  to  be  sure,  and  thus 
all  the  more  charming.  This  is  done  by  bringing  forward 
the  advancing  colors  and  placing  in  the  background  the 
retreating.  The  advancing  colors  are  red,  orange,  and 
yellow,  and  the  blues  the  retreating.  The  ancients  seemed 
to  possess  great  knowledge  of  the  resources  of  color  and 
their  mutual  relations.  The  Chinese,  while  showing  no 
real  grandeur  in  any  of  their  treatment,  have  the  richest 
of  coloring.  This  is  also  true  of  Japanese  Art,  which  has 
more  beauty  and  individuality  than  the  Chinese. 

There  is  much  that  we  can  work  out  in  the  theory  of 
color,  which  is  not  only  delightful  and  instructive  in  the 
doing  but  also  helpful  in  decorative  art  and  even  in  fine 
art,  but  we  must  never  forget  that  color,  with  all  its  mystic 
influences,  its  subtile  harmonies,  and  even  discords  cannot 
be  sounded  by  plummet,  nor  can  combinations  at  once 
agreeable  to  the  sense  and  elevating  to  the  mind  be 
reduced  to  an  algebraic  formula.  We  find  by  experience 
not  only  in  teaching  but  in  art  work  generally  that  some 
knowledge  of  theory  is  of  great  value,  but  while  accepting 
certain  facts  we  must  not  forget  that  conditions  modify 
them,  and  that  in  teaching  color,  as  with  many  other 
things,  there  are  exceptions  to  rules  and  various  influences 
to  be  considered.  Such  are  sunlight,  light  and  shade, 
proximity  of  other  colors,  &c.  &c.,  all  of  which  have  much 


i  io  Suggestions  for  the  Teaching  of  Color.  [26 

meaning.  In  our  teaching  of  color  in  the  public  schools, 
water  colors  are  cleaner  and  more  easily  handled  than 
other  color  mediums,  and  more  satisfactory  in  results. 
Both  water  colors  and  oils  are  greatly  affected  by  their 
grinding.  In  old  times  every  artist  ground  his  own  colors, 
or  if  he  felt  his  time  too  precious  the  colors  were  ground 
by  a  boy  in  the  studio.  Many  of  the  greatest  artists  began 
in  this  way  as  color  grinders  in  some  studio.  The  old 
masters  kept  their  colors  in  pots  and  bladders  and  it  was 
very  hard  to  keep  them  fresh,  and  free  from  dirt.  Oil 
colors  come  now  prepared  for  use  in  compressible  tubes 
of  thin  metal  and  so  do  water  colors  also,  although  the 
latter  are  more  generally  used  in  cakes  or  in  porcelain 
pans.  Moist  colors,  so  called,  have  been  mixed  with 
glycerine.  They  take  water  easily,  flow  readily,  and  are 
generally  preferred  to  the  dry  cakes. 

In  the  teaching  of  color  to  young  children  and  in  using 
paints  and  colored  papers  (supplementary  to  the  match¬ 
ing  of  colors  in  wool,  silk,  and  so  on)  it  seems  well  to 
begin  with  the  standard  primaries.  The  children  thus 
recognize  a  standard  or  normal  color  as  the  intense  color 
— as  the  yellowish  yellow,  reddish  red,  or  bluish  blue. 
They  may  then  learn  tint  and  shade  and  combine  only 
tints,  standards  and  shades  of  the  same  color.  In  dealing 
with  water  colors  the  addition  of  water  or  white  will  give 
a  tint,  and  black  or  gray  added  to  the  standard  will  give  a 
shade.  In  the  use  of  paper  there  is  still  some  difficulty 
in  gettingthe  most  desirable  colors  ;  but  this  will  be  over¬ 
come  doubtless  when  sufficient  demand  for  harmonious 
combinations  convinces  the  paper  manufacturers  of  the 
need  of  care  in  reproducing  an  order  exactly  as  it  is 
given.  In  using  water  colors  the  paper  which  comes  for 
the  purpose  is  the  best  “  Whatman’s  Rough  ”  made  into 
pads  of  convenient  size  ;  but  a  clear  white  manila  with  a 
rough  surface  will  do,  especially  for  class  exercises.  Work 
covering  a  large  area,  as  a  broad  treatment  of  historic 


2 7]  Suggestions  for  the  Teaching  of  Color.  1 1 1 

ornament  or  a  decorative  design,  requires  water-color 
paper  stretched  upon  a  drawing-board. 

We  all  admit  that  the  young  child  is  greatly  attracted 
by  color  but  just  how  far  or  in  what  way  we  can  safely  use 
this  love  of  color  in  education  is  the  question.  It  would 
seem  best  that  only  in  his  first  efforts  should  the  child 
express  ideas  of  form  from  nature  with  color,  for  then 
technical  excellence  is  not  expected.  He  may  again  use 
color  from  nature  as  a  culmination  of  his  powers  of  expres¬ 
sion  both  in  artistic  spirit  and  technique,  reached  after 
many  years  drill  in  drawing,  with  a  knowledge  of  the 
theory  of  color,  and  practice  in  light  and  shade.  Color 
would  be  present  in  the  intervening  period,  however,  not 
only  as  a  source  of  delight  but  as  a  means  of  education, 
first  in  the  use  of  colored  paper,  and  later  in  that  of  water 
colors  for  decorative  design. 

Any  child  can  daub  green  paint  on  paper  and  call  it  a 
leaf,  or  red  and  call  it  a  rose,  but  true  art  is  not  imita¬ 
tion,  even  though  the  daubing  be  clever  for  the  child’s 
age.  However,  some  bright  and  enterprising  teachers  are 
experimenting  in  that  direction,  and  it  is  interesting  to 
watch  the  effect.  All  I  have  seen  makes  me  doubtful  of 
the  safety  of  such  effort  (that  is,  painting  from  objects  and 
nature)  beyond  the  first  or  second  year  of  school  life  until 
the  high  school  is  reached.  The  old  masters  required  of 
themselves  and  their  students  long  and  rigid  drill  in  draw¬ 
ing  and  in  light  and  shade  before  color  was  touched,  save 
in  the  study  of  theory  and  for  use  in  decorative  effects. 
The  expression  by  color  was  the  culmination  of  this  long 
study. 

There  may  be  educational  value  in  attempting  the  exact 
imitation  of  a  leaf  or  flower  from  nature  rendered  in  color 
closely  imitating  every  little  part  and  used  for  illustration 
in  the  study  of  botany  ;  or  color  may  aid  in  showing 
structure  in  other  scientific  studies  such  as  physiology,  or 
physics,  but  such  work,  valuable  though  it  may  be,  is  not 
art. 


1 12  Suggestions  for  the  Teaching  of  Color.  28] 

The  answer  which  is  constantly  made  to  one  who  pleads 
for  good  methods  and  higher  artistic  development  in  our 
public  schools  is,  that  “the  school  is  no  place  to  make  an 
artist.”  Neither  is  it  the  place  to  spoil  one.  We  can 
however  excite  an  interest  i*n  art,  do  something  toward 
developing  the  general  taste  of  the  community  (which 
possibility  we  may  hope  for  through  the  children)  if  results 
in  the  way  of  technical  excellence  are  not  demanded 
before  it  is  reasonable  to  look  for  them.  In  no  other 
civilized  country  in  the  world  has  the  subject  of  art  educa¬ 
tion  been  considered  of  such  minor  importance  as  in  the 
United  States.  Year  after  year  has  gone  by  and  our 
manufacturers  have  employed  only  foreign  designers. 
Young  artists  have  found  no  proper  training  short  of  the 
foreign  schools.  A  spirit  of  progress  is  among  us.  Art 
schools  are  springing  up  all  over  the  land.  Native  talent 
is  developing  and  being  recognized.  Let  the  teachers  by 
doing  their  little  and  doing  it  well,  help  in  this  movement, 
which  is  great  in  its  possibilities,  requiring  only  zeal  and 
effort  to  insure  success.  My  plea  is  for  the  children  of  the 
masses  ;  that  some  feeling  of  beauty  may  enter  their  lives. 
It  should  be  their  inheritance.  Who  can  measure  its 
power  for  uplifting  ? 


1 


> 


» 


\ 


r 


e  Training  of  the 


The  granting  of  a  charter  by  the  Board 
of  Regents  to  the  New  York  College  for 
the  Training  of  Teachers — the  first  Ameri¬ 
can  Professional  College  for  Teachers — was 
referred  to  in  the  report  of  the  II.  S.  Com¬ 
missioner  of  Education  for  1888  as  the 
“  Event  of  the  year.” 

What  the  foundation  of  such  a  college 
means  for  Teachers  and  Teaching,  how  it 
interprets  the  term  Professional  Training, 
and  what  class  of  teachers  it  is  especially 
designed  to  reach,  may  be  ascertained  from 
the  Circular  of  Information,  or  by  appli¬ 
cation,  in  person  or  by  letter,  to  the  Bean. 

TWO  FACTS. 

1.  To  the  numerous  calls  for  graduates 
of  this  College  to  fill  positions  of  honor  it 
is  absolutely  impossible  to  respond.  The 
demand  for  professional  teachers  has  come 
before  the  supply. 

2.  In  response  to  the  demands  of  teach¬ 
ers  of  long  experience,  who  are  planning  to 
spend  a  vacation  year  with  us,  there  is 
offered  for  the  coming  year  a  special  course 
in  Pedagogics  and  Methodology  with  priv¬ 
ilege  of  wide  election  of  desirable  subjects. 
The  plans  and  provisions  of  this  work  will 
be  cheerfully  furnished  to  applicants. 

Address, 

Walter  L.  Hervey,  A.M.,  Dean , 

9  University  Place,  New  York  City. 


I 


•  2 


WOMAN’S  EXCHANGE. 

TEACHERS’  BUREAU  (For  both  Sexes). 

Supplies  Professors,  Teachers,  Governesses,  Musicians,  etc.,  to  Colleges,  Schools,  Familh 
and  Churches,  also  Bookkeepers,  Stenographers,  Copyists  and  Cashiers  to 
Business  Firms.  Recommends  Schools  to  parents. 

Address,  MISS  C.  L.  WERNER,  329  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York. 


KINDERGARTEN 


AND 

SCHOOL 

SUPPLIES 


j.  w. 

Schermerhorn  &  0 
3  East  14th  St., 
New  York. 


G-USTAV  E.  STECHERT, 

— IMPORTER  OF — 

Foreign  Books  and  Periodicals 


828  BROADWAY,  NEW  YORK. 


Catalogues  of  Second-hand  Books  will 
be  sent  gratis  on  application. 


English,  French  and  German  Monthl 
Bulletins  of  New  Books, 


BRANCHES 


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381  BROOME  STREET,  N.  Y. 

Knives  for  Wood  Carving  on  liand  or  made  to  order  at  short  notice.  A1 

repairing  promptly  attended  to. 

Superior  Professors,  Teachers,  Tutors,  Governesses  and  Speciai 
ists,  in  every  Department  of  Instruction,  supplied  to 
Colleges,  Schools  and  Families.  Call  on  or  address 

Ihvllirs-  2^L.  J.  TOUNG-FULTOKT, 

American  and  Foreign  Teachers'  Agency,  23  Union  Square,  New  York  City 


The  Department  of  Mechanic  Arts 

OF  THE 

NEW  YORK  COLLEGE  FOR  THE  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS 

is  prepared  to  furnish  plans  and  specifications  for  improved  wood-working  benches 
drawing  boards  and  desk-boards  for  elementary  wood-work,  to  schools  and  department! 
where  manual  training  is  taught.  Address, 

A.  W.  CHASE,  B.  S., 

9  University  Place,  N.  Y. 


J 


THE  SURVIVAL  OF  THE  FITTEST. 

The  Glens  Falls  Summer  School  and  the  National 
School  of  Methods  Combined. 


SIXTH  ANNUAL  SESSION  AT  GLENS  FALLS,  N.  Y., 

(Between  Lake  George  and  Saratoga.) 

July  29-August  16,  1890.  400  Students  Last  Year. 

Ths  LARGEST,  STRONGEST  and  BEST  of  all  the  SUMMER  SCHOOLS. 


FACULTY. 

DR.  E.  E.  WHITE. 

Ex.  Supt.  of  Schools,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

R.  C.  METCALF,  LANGUAGE,  GRAMMAR,  and  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 


PSYCHOLOGY  and  PEDAGOGICS. 


Supervisor  of  Schools,  Boston,  Mass. 


ARITHMETIC. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

DRAWING. 


G.  I.  ALDRICH, 

Supt.  of  Schools,  Quincy,  Mass. 

CHARLES  F.  KING, 

Prin.  Dearborn  School,  Boston,  Mass. 

H.  P.  SMITH, 

Head  Drawing  Teacher,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

JOHN  F.  WOODHULL,  ELEMENTARY  SCIENCE  and  HOME-MADE  APPARATUS. 

College  for  the  Training  of  Teachers,  New  York  City. 

W.  J.  BALLARD,  PHYSICAL  TRAINING. 

Supt.  Schools,  Jamaica,  N.  Y. 

L.  D.  SMITH,  PENMANSHIP. 

Teacher  of  Penmanship,  Hartford,  Ct. 

WALTER  S.  PARKER,  HISTORY. 

Prin.  Everett  School,  Boston,  Mass. 

MISS  SARAH  L.  ARNOLD,  PRIMARY  WORK  and  METHODS. 

Supervisor  of  Primary  Schools,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 

MISS  CAROLINE  T.  HAVEN,  KINDERGARTEN  WORK  and  METHODS. 

Felix  Adler’s  School,  New  York. 

MISS  W.  BERTHA  HINTZ,  ILLUSTRATIVE  DRAWING  and  PAINTING. 

Boston  Normal  School. 

L.  A.  BUTTERFIELD,  Ph.D.,  READING  and  ELOCUTION. 

Emerson  College  of  Oratory,  Boston,  Mass. 

MISS  MAY  STONE,  SENTENCE  METHOD  IN  READING. 

Shawmut  Primary  School,  Chelsea,  Mass. 

DR.  A.  E.  WINSHIP,  LECTURES. 

Ed.  New  England  Journal  of  Education.  


ADVANTAGES. 

Some  of  the  advantages  of  this  school  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows  : 

A  Faculty  composed  wholly  of  experts. 

Low  rate  of  Tuition  and  liberal  reductions  to  clubs. 

Board  much  cheaper  than  at  any  other  summer  school. 

A  section  of  country  rich  in  historic  associations. 

Lake  George  near  by;  also  Lake  Luzerne,  Saratoga,  Mt.  McGregor,  and  the  Adi- 
{  rondacks,  all  of  world-wide  fame. 

Numerous  cheap  excursions  that  will  not  be  over-crowded. 

Field  excursions  in  connection  with  the  lectures  in  Natural  Science. 

An  excellent  building  with  plenty  of  open  space  all  around  it. 

An  excellent  concert  and  lecture  course. 

An  acquaintance  with  leading  educators  from  all  parts  of  the  country,  including  a 
corps  of  instructors  which  will  be  recognized  as  the  best  yet  brought  together. 

The  rest  afforded  by  the  vicinity  and  atmosphere  of  the  most  famous  of  our  mountain 
regions,  and  combined  with  it  the  opportunity  of  learning  the  best  known  methods  of 
teaching. 

Liberal  reduction  to  clubs.  Circulars  now  ready.  Address, 

SHERMAN  WILLIAMS,  Glens  Falls,  N.  Y. 
CHARLES  F.  KING,  Boston  Highlands,  Mass. 


4 


The  Prang  Course  of  Instruction 
in  Form  and  Drawing. 

This  course  is  the  outgrowth  of  fifteen  years’  experience 
devoted  to  the  development  of  this  single  Subject  in  public 
education,  under  the  widest  and  most  varied  conditions. 

It  differs  widely  from  all  the  so-called  “  Systems  of  Draw¬ 
ing”  before  the  public. 

The  aim  or  object  of  the  instruction  is  different. 

The  Methods  of  teaching  and  the  Work  of  pupils  are 
different. 

The  Models,  Text-books,  and  materials  are  on  an  entirely 
different  Educational  plan. 

The  results  in  Schools  are  widely  and  radically  different. 

It  is  the  only  Course  based  on  the  Study  of  Models  and 
Objects  by  each  pupil. 

The  Course  prepares  directly  for  MANUAL  TRAINING. 
Many  of  the  exercises  are  in  themselves  elementary  exer¬ 
cises  in  Manual  Training. 

THE  PRANG  COURSE  has  a  much  wider  adoption  in 
the  best  schools  of  the  country  than  all  the  “Systems  of 
Drawing”  put  together.  It  has  the  endorsement  of  the 
leading  educators  of  the  country. 

More  than  two  millions  of  children  in  public  schools  are 
being  taught  Form  and  Drawing  by  The  Prang  Course. 

PRANG’S  NORMAL  DRAWING  CLASSES. 

These  classes  have  been  established  for  giving  the  very 
best  kind  of  instruction  in  Drawing  through  home  study 
and  by  correspondence.  All  teachers  can,  through  these 
classes,  prepare  themselves  to  teach  Drawing  in  their  schools. 

Jt^i^Send  for  Circulars  in  regard  to  PRANG’S  COURSE 
OF  INSTRUCTION  IN  FORM  STUDY  AND  DRAW¬ 
ING,  and  also  in  regard  to  PRANG’S  NORMAL  DRAW¬ 
ING  CLASSES.  Address, 

THE  PRANG  EDUCATIONAL  COMPANY, 

BOSTON. 


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